Old Order
A social and political structure called the Old Order, or ancient regime,created inequalities in French society. Under the Old Order, the king was at the top, and three social groups called estates were under him.
The king at the time of the Revolution was King Louis XVI. He lived at the extravagant palace of Versailles, 10 miles outside of Paris.King Louis was shy and indecisive but not cruel. His queen, Marie-Antoinette, was from Austria- a country that was a traditional enemy of France. Marie-Antoinette’s nationality made her unpopular with the French, but she was also frivolous and self-indulgent. Whats that mean? Carefree and seekings one’s desires without restraint. She enjoyed lavish parties and fancy clothes while many of the common people wore rags.
The rest of the French society was divided into three classes, called estates. These groups varied widely in what they contributed to France, in terms of both work and taxes.
The king at the time of the Revolution was King Louis XVI. He lived at the extravagant palace of Versailles, 10 miles outside of Paris.King Louis was shy and indecisive but not cruel. His queen, Marie-Antoinette, was from Austria- a country that was a traditional enemy of France. Marie-Antoinette’s nationality made her unpopular with the French, but she was also frivolous and self-indulgent. Whats that mean? Carefree and seekings one’s desires without restraint. She enjoyed lavish parties and fancy clothes while many of the common people wore rags.
The rest of the French society was divided into three classes, called estates. These groups varied widely in what they contributed to France, in terms of both work and taxes.
King Louis XVI
Marie Antoinette
First Estate
The First Estate was made up of the Roman Catholic clergy, about 1 percent of the population. The clergy had held several privileges since the Middle Age. For example, only church courts could try priests and bishops for crimes, so the clergy did not have to answer to the same laws as everyone else. Furthermore, neither the clergy nor the Roman Catholic Church had to pay any taxes. Land belonging to the Roman Catholic Church was also exempt from taxes. In addition, the church owned about 10 percent of France’s land, which produced vast sums of money in rents and fees. Bishops and some other higher clergy controlled this wealth and became very rich. Although many of the priests who ministered to the common people were poor, many people resented the wealth and privileges of the clergy.
The First Estate was made up of the Roman Catholic clergy, about 1 percent of the population. The clergy had held several privileges since the Middle Age. For example, only church courts could try priests and bishops for crimes, so the clergy did not have to answer to the same laws as everyone else. Furthermore, neither the clergy nor the Roman Catholic Church had to pay any taxes. Land belonging to the Roman Catholic Church was also exempt from taxes. In addition, the church owned about 10 percent of France’s land, which produced vast sums of money in rents and fees. Bishops and some other higher clergy controlled this wealth and became very rich. Although many of the priests who ministered to the common people were poor, many people resented the wealth and privileges of the clergy.
Second Estate
The Second Estate was made up of the nobility, less than 2 percent of the population. Although the nobility controlled much of the country’s wealth, they paid few taxes. Members of the Second Estate held key positions in government and military. Many lived on country estates where peasants did all the work and were forced to pay high fees and rents to the landowner. Some nobles lived in luxury at the king’s court, where their only real jobs were ceremonial.
The Second Estate was made up of the nobility, less than 2 percent of the population. Although the nobility controlled much of the country’s wealth, they paid few taxes. Members of the Second Estate held key positions in government and military. Many lived on country estates where peasants did all the work and were forced to pay high fees and rents to the landowner. Some nobles lived in luxury at the king’s court, where their only real jobs were ceremonial.
Third Estate
The Third Estate, by far the largest group of people, included about 97 percent of the population. The Third Estate was itself made up of several groups. At the top of the Third Estate was the bourgeoisie (boorhzh-wah-zee)- City dwelling merchants, factory owners, and professionals such as lawyers and doctors. Although they had no role in the government, some of the bourgeoisie were highly educated and quite rich. Their wealth, however, did not buy them any influences in the government.
Below the bourgeoisie were the artisans and workers of the cities. These were the shoemakers, carpenters, bricklayers, dressmakers, and laborers. If these people had no work, they went hungry. The workers of the Third Estate were known as Sans culottes (sanz-kooh-laht) or those “without knee breeches.” They wore long pants- in contrast to the tight knee length breeches, or pants worn by the nobility. Sans culottes became a nickname of pride for the workers.
At the bottom of the Third Estate were the peasants who farmed the nobles’ fields. Not only did they pay rents and fees to the land-owners, but they also paid a tenth of their income to the church. In addition, they had to perform labor, such as working on roads, without pay. Many peasants were miserably poor and had no hope for a better life.
The Third Estate, by far the largest group of people, included about 97 percent of the population. The Third Estate was itself made up of several groups. At the top of the Third Estate was the bourgeoisie (boorhzh-wah-zee)- City dwelling merchants, factory owners, and professionals such as lawyers and doctors. Although they had no role in the government, some of the bourgeoisie were highly educated and quite rich. Their wealth, however, did not buy them any influences in the government.
Below the bourgeoisie were the artisans and workers of the cities. These were the shoemakers, carpenters, bricklayers, dressmakers, and laborers. If these people had no work, they went hungry. The workers of the Third Estate were known as Sans culottes (sanz-kooh-laht) or those “without knee breeches.” They wore long pants- in contrast to the tight knee length breeches, or pants worn by the nobility. Sans culottes became a nickname of pride for the workers.
At the bottom of the Third Estate were the peasants who farmed the nobles’ fields. Not only did they pay rents and fees to the land-owners, but they also paid a tenth of their income to the church. In addition, they had to perform labor, such as working on roads, without pay. Many peasants were miserably poor and had no hope for a better life.
Creating a New Nation
The violence that marked the beginning of the Revolutions eventually lessened.. At this stage, in the Revolution the National Assembly began transforming centuries of French tradition. The Assembly formed a new government and France’s monarchy eventually crumbled.
Legislating New Rights
By early August 1789, the National Assembly had eliminated all the feudal dues and services that the peasants owed the landowners. The Assembly also eliminated the First Estate’s legal privileges.
In Late August the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Declaration laid out the basic principles of the French Revolution-”liberty, equality, fraternity(brotherhood).” Writers of the Declaration took their inspiration from the English Bill of Rights, the American Declaration of Independence, and the writings of the Enlightenment philosophers. The document stated that all men are born equal and remain equal before the law. Like the U.S. Bill of Rights, the Declaration guaranteed freedom of speech, the press, and religion.
However, these rights did not extend to women. A famous Paris playwright, Olympe de Gouges (duh-goozh), wrote a declaration of rights for women, but the National Assembly turned it down.
Restrictions on Power
Alarmed by the National Assembly’s action, Louis made the same mistake he had made earlier in the summer. He called troops to Versailles to protect his throne. This angered the common people of Paris, who feared that the king would crush the Revolution. In October a crowd of perhaps 7,000 women marched through the rain from Paris to Versailles. Demanding bread, the mob broke into the palace. To make peace with the crowd, Louis agreed to return to Paris and live in the Tuileries Palace with his family. The seizure of the royal family encouraged the Revolution’s leaders to take bolder steps, and they passed several anticlerical measures. In November, the National Assembly seized church lands and sold them to pay off France’s huge debt. All religious orders were disbanded. The Assembly also passed an act that turned the clergy into public employees. This action outraged most members of the clergy and also horrified many peasants.
The violence that marked the beginning of the Revolutions eventually lessened.. At this stage, in the Revolution the National Assembly began transforming centuries of French tradition. The Assembly formed a new government and France’s monarchy eventually crumbled.
Legislating New Rights
By early August 1789, the National Assembly had eliminated all the feudal dues and services that the peasants owed the landowners. The Assembly also eliminated the First Estate’s legal privileges.
In Late August the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Declaration laid out the basic principles of the French Revolution-”liberty, equality, fraternity(brotherhood).” Writers of the Declaration took their inspiration from the English Bill of Rights, the American Declaration of Independence, and the writings of the Enlightenment philosophers. The document stated that all men are born equal and remain equal before the law. Like the U.S. Bill of Rights, the Declaration guaranteed freedom of speech, the press, and religion.
However, these rights did not extend to women. A famous Paris playwright, Olympe de Gouges (duh-goozh), wrote a declaration of rights for women, but the National Assembly turned it down.
Restrictions on Power
Alarmed by the National Assembly’s action, Louis made the same mistake he had made earlier in the summer. He called troops to Versailles to protect his throne. This angered the common people of Paris, who feared that the king would crush the Revolution. In October a crowd of perhaps 7,000 women marched through the rain from Paris to Versailles. Demanding bread, the mob broke into the palace. To make peace with the crowd, Louis agreed to return to Paris and live in the Tuileries Palace with his family. The seizure of the royal family encouraged the Revolution’s leaders to take bolder steps, and they passed several anticlerical measures. In November, the National Assembly seized church lands and sold them to pay off France’s huge debt. All religious orders were disbanded. The Assembly also passed an act that turned the clergy into public employees. This action outraged most members of the clergy and also horrified many peasants.
Formation of a New Government
In 1791 the National Assembly finally completed it’s constitution. It created a new legislative body called the Legislative assembly. Citizens gained broad voting rights, but only taxpaying men at least 25 years old had the right to vote. The constitution kept the monarchy but severely restricted the king’s power. In June 1791 the king and queen suspected that they were not safe, so they put on disguises and fled Paris. However, they were recognized and brought back to the Tuileries Palace.
The Intervention of Foreign Powers
In July 1792 Austria and Prussia issued a declaration warning against harming the French monarchs and hinting that any such action would provoke war. Although the declaration was not meant to be read as a serious threat, Austria sent 50,000 troops to the French border. In response, the Legislative Assembly declared war. France’s army was in disarray, however, and was defeated.
In Paris the financial strain of war, food shortages and high prices, and foreign troops marching toward the city led to unrest. Many people blamed the army’s defeats on the Kin. Parisians feared that the achievements of the Revolution would be overturned, and they decided they had nothing to lose from extreme action.
In 1791 the National Assembly finally completed it’s constitution. It created a new legislative body called the Legislative assembly. Citizens gained broad voting rights, but only taxpaying men at least 25 years old had the right to vote. The constitution kept the monarchy but severely restricted the king’s power. In June 1791 the king and queen suspected that they were not safe, so they put on disguises and fled Paris. However, they were recognized and brought back to the Tuileries Palace.
The Intervention of Foreign Powers
In July 1792 Austria and Prussia issued a declaration warning against harming the French monarchs and hinting that any such action would provoke war. Although the declaration was not meant to be read as a serious threat, Austria sent 50,000 troops to the French border. In response, the Legislative Assembly declared war. France’s army was in disarray, however, and was defeated.
In Paris the financial strain of war, food shortages and high prices, and foreign troops marching toward the city led to unrest. Many people blamed the army’s defeats on the Kin. Parisians feared that the achievements of the Revolution would be overturned, and they decided they had nothing to lose from extreme action.
The End of the Monarchy
Extreme action came on August 10, 1792, when a mob marched on Tuilleries Palace and slaughtered the guards. Louis, Marie-Antoinette, and the children- now demoted to commoners- were thrown in prison.
Faced with mob violence and foreign invasion, the Legislative Assembly felt powerless. It voted itself out of existence and called for the election of a new legislature, the National Convention. The violence in August helped put the radical faction, or those who favored extreme change, in control. Among the National Convention’s first acts were abolishing the monarchy and declared France a republic.
The same day the new National Convention met, the French won a battle against the foreign invaders. This victory inspired hope in the revolutionary troops. The French Republic had held its ground against Europe’s Old Order.
Extreme action came on August 10, 1792, when a mob marched on Tuilleries Palace and slaughtered the guards. Louis, Marie-Antoinette, and the children- now demoted to commoners- were thrown in prison.
Faced with mob violence and foreign invasion, the Legislative Assembly felt powerless. It voted itself out of existence and called for the election of a new legislature, the National Convention. The violence in August helped put the radical faction, or those who favored extreme change, in control. Among the National Convention’s first acts were abolishing the monarchy and declared France a republic.
The same day the new National Convention met, the French won a battle against the foreign invaders. This victory inspired hope in the revolutionary troops. The French Republic had held its ground against Europe’s Old Order.
The Execution of the King
Shortly after the National Convention convened the king was placed on trial. Quickly condemned, the king was scheduled to die the next day, January 21, 1793. That morning, the Paris streets were quiet. Soldiers lined the way to the place of execution, in case any supporters of the monarchy caused trouble. At the scaffold, Louis began to deliver a speech proclaiming his innocence, but the drum roll drowned out his voice. He was pushed into place on the Guillotine. When the deed was done, a young guard held up the dripping head for all to see.
Reports of the king’s execution quickly spread across Europe. Outside of France Europeans reacted with horror to the news of the French Revolution. The London Times newspaper condemned the Revolution and the execution of the king as savagery.
The National convention began tightening control. They set up a committee of Public Safety to manage the country’s military defense against the foreign forces on France’s borders. Many clergymen lost their positions and many churches were shut down. Robespierre created a cult of the Supreme Being, in which enthusiasm for the Revolution was the object of worship. The calendar was also changed. The months were renamed, and every month had 3 weeks of 10 days. The revolutionary calendar fell out of use.
Shortly after the National Convention convened the king was placed on trial. Quickly condemned, the king was scheduled to die the next day, January 21, 1793. That morning, the Paris streets were quiet. Soldiers lined the way to the place of execution, in case any supporters of the monarchy caused trouble. At the scaffold, Louis began to deliver a speech proclaiming his innocence, but the drum roll drowned out his voice. He was pushed into place on the Guillotine. When the deed was done, a young guard held up the dripping head for all to see.
Reports of the king’s execution quickly spread across Europe. Outside of France Europeans reacted with horror to the news of the French Revolution. The London Times newspaper condemned the Revolution and the execution of the king as savagery.
The National convention began tightening control. They set up a committee of Public Safety to manage the country’s military defense against the foreign forces on France’s borders. Many clergymen lost their positions and many churches were shut down. Robespierre created a cult of the Supreme Being, in which enthusiasm for the Revolution was the object of worship. The calendar was also changed. The months were renamed, and every month had 3 weeks of 10 days. The revolutionary calendar fell out of use.
Reign of Terror
After the death of Louis XVI in 1793, the Reign of Terror began. The first victim was Marie Antoinette. She had been imprisoned with her children after she was separated from Louis. First they took her son Louis Charles from her (often called the lost dauphin, or Louis XVII). He disappeared under suspicious circumstances. Then she led off a parade of prominent and not-so-prominent citizens to their deaths. The guillotine, the new instrument of egalitarian justice, was put to work. Public executions were considered educational. Women were encouraged to sit and knit during trials and executions. The Revolutionary Tribunal ordered the execution of 2,400 people in Paris by July 1794. Across France 30,000 people lost their lives.The Terror was designed to fight the enemies of the revolution, to prevent counter-revolution from gaining ground. Most of the people rounded up were not aristocrats, but ordinary people. A man (and his family) might go to the guillotine for saying something critical of the revolutionary government. If an informer happened to overhear, that was all the tribunal needed. Watch Committees around the nation were encouraged to arrest "suspected persons, ... those who, either by their conduct or their relationships, by their remarks or by their writing, are shown to be partisans of tyranny and federalism and enemies of liberty" (Law of Suspects, 1793). Civil liberties were suspended. The Convention ordered that "if material or moral proof exists, independently of the evidence of witnesses, the latter will not be heard, unless this formality should appear necessary, either to discover accomplices or for other important reasons concerning the public interest." The promises of the Declaration of the Rights of Man were forgotten. Terror was the order of the day. In the words of Maximilien Robespierre, "Softness to traitors will destroy us all."
Robespierre was the mastermind of the Reign of Terror. He was the leader of the Committee of Public Safety, the executive committee of the National Convention, and the most powerful man in France. He explained how terror would lead to the Republic of Virtue in a speech to the National Convention:
If the spring of popular government in time of peace is virtue, the springs of popular government in revolution are at once virtue and terror: virtue, without which terror is fatal; terror, without which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible...It has been said that terror is the principle of despotic government. Does your government therefore resemble despotism? Yes, as the sword that gleams in the hands of the heroes of liberty resembles that with which the henchmen of tyranny are armed. Maximilien Robespierre Speech on the Justification of the Use of Terror
The old maxim "the end justifies the means" describes Robespierre's policy well.
Even the radical Jacobins, the supporters of Robespierre, come to feel that the Terror must be stopped. Danton rose in the Convention calling for an end to the Terror. He was its next victim. Fearful of Danton's reputation for eloquence, the Convention passed a decree stating that any accused person who insulted the court should be prohibited from speaking in his own defense. Danton was not allowed to speak in his own defense. Nevertheless after the trial Danton asserted that "the people will tear my enemies to pieces within 3 months." As he was led to the guillotine he remarked "Above all, don't forget to show my head to the people - it's well worth having a look at." Modesty was never one of his virtues.
When Robespierre called for a new purge in 1794, he seemed to threaten the other members of the Committee of Public Safety. The Jacobins had had enough. Cambon rose in the Convention and said "It is time to tell the whole truth. One man alone is paralyzing the will of the Convention. And that man is Robespierre." Others quickly rallied to his support. Robespierre was arrested and sent to the guillotine the next day, the last victim of the Reign of Terror.
After the death of Louis XVI in 1793, the Reign of Terror began. The first victim was Marie Antoinette. She had been imprisoned with her children after she was separated from Louis. First they took her son Louis Charles from her (often called the lost dauphin, or Louis XVII). He disappeared under suspicious circumstances. Then she led off a parade of prominent and not-so-prominent citizens to their deaths. The guillotine, the new instrument of egalitarian justice, was put to work. Public executions were considered educational. Women were encouraged to sit and knit during trials and executions. The Revolutionary Tribunal ordered the execution of 2,400 people in Paris by July 1794. Across France 30,000 people lost their lives.The Terror was designed to fight the enemies of the revolution, to prevent counter-revolution from gaining ground. Most of the people rounded up were not aristocrats, but ordinary people. A man (and his family) might go to the guillotine for saying something critical of the revolutionary government. If an informer happened to overhear, that was all the tribunal needed. Watch Committees around the nation were encouraged to arrest "suspected persons, ... those who, either by their conduct or their relationships, by their remarks or by their writing, are shown to be partisans of tyranny and federalism and enemies of liberty" (Law of Suspects, 1793). Civil liberties were suspended. The Convention ordered that "if material or moral proof exists, independently of the evidence of witnesses, the latter will not be heard, unless this formality should appear necessary, either to discover accomplices or for other important reasons concerning the public interest." The promises of the Declaration of the Rights of Man were forgotten. Terror was the order of the day. In the words of Maximilien Robespierre, "Softness to traitors will destroy us all."
Robespierre was the mastermind of the Reign of Terror. He was the leader of the Committee of Public Safety, the executive committee of the National Convention, and the most powerful man in France. He explained how terror would lead to the Republic of Virtue in a speech to the National Convention:
If the spring of popular government in time of peace is virtue, the springs of popular government in revolution are at once virtue and terror: virtue, without which terror is fatal; terror, without which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible...It has been said that terror is the principle of despotic government. Does your government therefore resemble despotism? Yes, as the sword that gleams in the hands of the heroes of liberty resembles that with which the henchmen of tyranny are armed. Maximilien Robespierre Speech on the Justification of the Use of Terror
The old maxim "the end justifies the means" describes Robespierre's policy well.
Even the radical Jacobins, the supporters of Robespierre, come to feel that the Terror must be stopped. Danton rose in the Convention calling for an end to the Terror. He was its next victim. Fearful of Danton's reputation for eloquence, the Convention passed a decree stating that any accused person who insulted the court should be prohibited from speaking in his own defense. Danton was not allowed to speak in his own defense. Nevertheless after the trial Danton asserted that "the people will tear my enemies to pieces within 3 months." As he was led to the guillotine he remarked "Above all, don't forget to show my head to the people - it's well worth having a look at." Modesty was never one of his virtues.
When Robespierre called for a new purge in 1794, he seemed to threaten the other members of the Committee of Public Safety. The Jacobins had had enough. Cambon rose in the Convention and said "It is time to tell the whole truth. One man alone is paralyzing the will of the Convention. And that man is Robespierre." Others quickly rallied to his support. Robespierre was arrested and sent to the guillotine the next day, the last victim of the Reign of Terror.
Jean-Paul Marat
An advocate of violence and a leader of the Paris sans culottes, was one of the National Convention’s most radical leaders.
An advocate of violence and a leader of the Paris sans culottes, was one of the National Convention’s most radical leaders.
Georges-Jacques Danton
A violent agitator in the early days of the revolution, was very popular with the public. A compromiser, he came to oppose what he considered the Revolution’s excesses.
A violent agitator in the early days of the revolution, was very popular with the public. A compromiser, he came to oppose what he considered the Revolution’s excesses.
Maximilien Robespierre
Was known for his intense dedication to the Revolution. He became increasingly radical and led the National Convention during its most bloodthirsty time.
Was known for his intense dedication to the Revolution. He became increasingly radical and led the National Convention during its most bloodthirsty time.
Napoleon’s Europe
Napoleon was a ruthlessly ambitious young man. The turmoil of the French Revolution gave him a prime opportunity to rise quickly to power. Within a few short years, he would rise from a mere army captain to become the ruler of France.
In 1795 Napoleon faced off against a mob of royalists trying to regain power in Paris. What is a royalist? Using artillery to shoot into the crowd, Napoleon forced the royalists to flee. As a reward for stopping the uprising, Napoleon was put in charge of defending the French interior. He was only 26 years old.
In Italy Napoleon won battles against the Austrians and Italians. His victories not only kept France’s borders secure but also won territory for France. Napoleon’s future looked very bright.
Napoleon tried to disrupt British trade with India by sailing to Egypt. He was quickly defeated by the British and decided to leave his army under the command of another officer and sailed back to France. He kept his defeat out of the press and exaggerated the successes of the French army, becoming a national hero in the process.
Napoleon was a ruthlessly ambitious young man. The turmoil of the French Revolution gave him a prime opportunity to rise quickly to power. Within a few short years, he would rise from a mere army captain to become the ruler of France.
In 1795 Napoleon faced off against a mob of royalists trying to regain power in Paris. What is a royalist? Using artillery to shoot into the crowd, Napoleon forced the royalists to flee. As a reward for stopping the uprising, Napoleon was put in charge of defending the French interior. He was only 26 years old.
In Italy Napoleon won battles against the Austrians and Italians. His victories not only kept France’s borders secure but also won territory for France. Napoleon’s future looked very bright.
Napoleon tried to disrupt British trade with India by sailing to Egypt. He was quickly defeated by the British and decided to leave his army under the command of another officer and sailed back to France. He kept his defeat out of the press and exaggerated the successes of the French army, becoming a national hero in the process.
Napoleon Seizes Power
People feared that royalists might conspire to place a monarchy in power. Others feared the growing opposition of European Nations, such as Great Britain and Austria, against France. As a result, a group of conspirators began to plot to seize more power for Napoleon. The legislature was forced to turn the government over to Napoleon in November of 1799. This event was a Coup d’etat (Koo day-tah) a forced transfer of power.
The structure of the Republic was still in place but Napoleon had become a dictator. Why would a nation that had overthrown its king now welcome a new dictator? Exhausted by the chaos of the Revolution and constant warfare, the French craved the order and stability Napoleon promised. Napoleon also pledged to uphold some key revolutionary reforms. The people would willingly give up some freedoms if Napoleon could bring peace, prosperity, and glory to France.
People feared that royalists might conspire to place a monarchy in power. Others feared the growing opposition of European Nations, such as Great Britain and Austria, against France. As a result, a group of conspirators began to plot to seize more power for Napoleon. The legislature was forced to turn the government over to Napoleon in November of 1799. This event was a Coup d’etat (Koo day-tah) a forced transfer of power.
The structure of the Republic was still in place but Napoleon had become a dictator. Why would a nation that had overthrown its king now welcome a new dictator? Exhausted by the chaos of the Revolution and constant warfare, the French craved the order and stability Napoleon promised. Napoleon also pledged to uphold some key revolutionary reforms. The people would willingly give up some freedoms if Napoleon could bring peace, prosperity, and glory to France.
Emperor Napoleon
Napoleon wanted to make his own power permanent and hereditary. He submitted a plebiscite, a question put before all the voters, in 1804: Did they want to declare France an Empire? French voters supported him and voted yes. Thus, Napoleon became Emperor Napoleon I.
Pope Pius VII came from Rome to crown Napoleon emperor in Paris. As the pope was about to place the crown on the new Emperors head, Napoleon grabbed the crown and placed it on his own head. Why? This action told the world that no one gave Napoleon his authority- he took it for himself.
Desire for Empire
Once Napoleon became emperor of France, he moved to build an empire. He wanted to rule Europe and to extend French power in the Americas. France controlled a number of territories in the Americas, including Louisiana, Florida, and the sugar-producing colony of Saint Domingue (now called Haiti). When civil war erupted in Saint Domingue, Napoleon sent an expedition to take back the colony and restore its profitable sugar industry. But the French expedition failed miserably.
This failure led Napoleon to abandon his dream of an empire in the Americas. He sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States and turned his focus to Europe.
Napoleon wanted to make his own power permanent and hereditary. He submitted a plebiscite, a question put before all the voters, in 1804: Did they want to declare France an Empire? French voters supported him and voted yes. Thus, Napoleon became Emperor Napoleon I.
Pope Pius VII came from Rome to crown Napoleon emperor in Paris. As the pope was about to place the crown on the new Emperors head, Napoleon grabbed the crown and placed it on his own head. Why? This action told the world that no one gave Napoleon his authority- he took it for himself.
Desire for Empire
Once Napoleon became emperor of France, he moved to build an empire. He wanted to rule Europe and to extend French power in the Americas. France controlled a number of territories in the Americas, including Louisiana, Florida, and the sugar-producing colony of Saint Domingue (now called Haiti). When civil war erupted in Saint Domingue, Napoleon sent an expedition to take back the colony and restore its profitable sugar industry. But the French expedition failed miserably.
This failure led Napoleon to abandon his dream of an empire in the Americas. He sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States and turned his focus to Europe.
Beginning in 1812, Napoleon began to encounter the first significant defeats of his military career, suffering through a disastrous invasion of Russia, losing Spain to the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsula War, and enduring total defeat against an allied force by 1814. Exiled to the island of Elba, he escaped to France in early 1815 and raised a new Grand Army that enjoyed temporary success before its crushing defeat at Waterloo against an allied force under Wellington on June 18, 1815. Napoleon was subsequently exiled to the island of Saint Helena off the coast of Africa. Six years later, he died, most likely of stomach cancer, and in 1840 his body was returned to Paris, where it was interred in the Hotel des Invalides.